Spartans: At The Gates Of Fire

Throughout ancient Greece, the city-state of Sparta was known for producing the most fearsome infantry that the Greek world had ever seen. There are legends that say the Spartan infantry were matched only in sheer combat prowess and coordination by the Roman legions, though historically, the legions only attained their famed discipline and combat coordination after the successful invasion of Sparta.

The legend of Spartan power and invincibility only became widespread across the world after the epic event called the Battle of Thermopylae, a battle that was a long-term strategic victory for Sparta even if it was an immediate tactical defeat for the 300 Spartans that engaged the invaders from Persia. The 300 soldiers walked into battle not knowing that their ferocity and gallantry would seal the reputation and legacy of the word 'Spartan' for all eternity. At Thermopylae...at the so-called “gates of fire” --- a myth was born and a legend was sealed.

Of course, this would not have happened had it not been for events prior to the battle itself. Darius, ruler of the Persian Empire, had attempted to conquer Greece as punishment for Athenian citizens who aided in the rebellion of a minor Greek town within Darius' domain. The Battle of Marathon was the result of that invasion, with Persian forces pushed back by Athenian infantry. At a later date, the Persian king Xerxes, ruler of the greatest empire of his time, schemed to make it greater still, by conquering the city-states of Greece. However, modern historians who refute this claim say that Xerxes was a known patron of culture and the arts, with hardly any military campaigns under his belt prior to the invasion. Some experts in Persian and Greek history have attributed the alleged decision of Xerxes to invade Greece as a sign of status anxiety.

Xerxes felt the pressure that was placed on his shoulders after the Athenians routed his father's army at Marathon. Following their defeat, it became clear that the Persian Empire was not superior in terms of military capability. This resulted in status anxiety, as the Persians were not known for their failures, as evidenced by their expansive empire. In theory, Xerxes may simply have grown tired of his courtiers and the Persian aristocracy that continually hounded him to invade Greece, supposedly to avenge his father's defeat. However, the other half of this equation, the Spartans, also experienced tremendous status anxiety.

Leonidas had tried to send men to Marathon, in response to Athens' request for help, but there were complications. The Spartans could not go to war during a religious celebration, which resulted in Spartan warriors arriving at Marathon too late. This resulted in greater glory for Athens, Sparta's rival city-state. This, Leonidas understood, threatened the superiority of the Spartan people and put the whole of the population under a mild climate of status anxiety right after Athens was acclaimed as the “savior of all Greece.” So when the Persian invasion came, Leonidas wanted to be there and meet the invaders with his spear. Again, duties to the gods of Greece and the need for Spartan warriors to remain and keep their slave population under control got in the way. The Greek politicians wanted engage in negotiations with the Persians because of their fear and anxiety. Leonidas chose to requisition a small force that will join him in the battle against the invaders.

The arrival of the Spartans was, undoubtedly, a morale boost for the allied Greek armies. The mere mention of a Spartan fighting a battle was enough to instill fear and anxiety in any opposing army, with that ferocious reputation made more magnified by the blood red cloaks and perfect phalanx of the Spartan warrior elite. On the first day of the Battle of Thermopylae, the Spartans taught the Persian hordes a lesson the other Greeks knew all too well. Spartans were not mere men. Spartans were a well-oiled killing machine that was fully ready to engage in mass slaughter. As one of Xerxes' aides said to the Persian king, “... to subdue the Spartans is to ensure no nation in Greece would dare challenge you.” Of course, as the Persians quickly found out, subduing the proud Spartans was not that simple.

While the Spartans were not the only ones to have fought on the front lines during the battle, they were the ones that took the brunt of the incoming Persian force. However, records written by the Persians themselves described the horror, fear, and anxiety that the prospect of facing a Spartan caused the invading troops. It is arguable whether or not Xerxes' generals understood the inevitable strategic consequences of taking on the Spartans by sending wave after wave of soldiers against them, but the terrain made it impossible to route the Leonidas' defensive line. Certainly fatigue would have set in for the Greeks eventually, but the problem for the Persians was just how much of their army would die before that happened.

Of course, greed being the motivator that it is, caused a betrayal among the Greeks. A local Greek named Ephialtes had betrayed the location of a small pass that the Persians could use to flank the Spartan line and surround the Greeks. There were defenders at that pass, but they ran at the sight of Persian troops. The records are being disputed about whether Leonidas ordered the other Greeks to retreat as a tactical decision, or if the Spartans were abandoned to die. Regardless, the surviving Spartan force, along with a Thespian force that refused to abandon them to die alone, remained.

On the third day of battle, with Persian morale low because of the fear and anxiety that the Spartan slaughter of their comrades caused, the final push was planned. The Spartan and Thespian forces, routed and surrounded, were inevitably all killed, though such was the fear and anxiety they caused that Xerxes could not make his troops commit to one last engagement, even as the Spartans were reduced to fighting with their hands and teeth. Instead, he ordered them to be shot down with arrows.

However, while it is considered a tragic defeat, the Battle of Thermopylae was still regarded as a strategic success. The death of one of their kings (Sparta was a diarchy, with two kings at any given time) motivated Sparta to raise and deploy more troops into battle. Even by the time the Battle of Plataea was fought, the Persian commanders and troops were still feeling the fear and anxiety they felt at Thermopylae, affecting their ability to fight a Spartan force of 5,000, along with several thousand more Greeks from Athens, Thespiae, and other city-states. The historical record is unclear on this point, but it is highly probably that Spartans rallied and inspired their troops by invoking the memory of Leonidas and his 300.

The Legacy of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great. The name alone inspires images of a man with a massive army at his back, his face laden with both the burden and the right to sweep the world and bring it under his rule. During his time, and for centuries afterwards, Alexander the Great, son of the infamous Phillip of Macedon, was hailed as one of the great, if not the greatest military commanders of all time. One particular side effect that Alexander's sweeping conquests inspired admiration in the military leaders that followed after him, though he may have also made them feel a bit of status anxiety.

Scipio Africanus, and his Carthaginian counterpart Hannibal Barca were both recorded to have felt a slight sense of inadequacy at being unable to achieve the same level of military prowess as Alexander. Hannibal, in particular, can be seen as having felt status anxiety when he compared himself to Alexander. According to classical accounts, he felt that Alexander would not have been defeated in the Battle of Zama, despite the superior tactics and numbers of Scipio's Roman legions. It was said that he believed that, if he could have beaten Scipio during that critical battle, he could claim the same level of military genius as Alexander.

Julius Caesar, often heralded as the greatest man to have come from ancient Rome, also felt pressured by the myth of Alexander. Roman society, the military in particular, often felt status anxiety whenever the topic of Alexander the Great was brought up. Due to his status, Caesar often felt a great deal of pressure to at least appear to have the same status of greatness as the fabled Macedonian ruler. Julius Caesar often said that he felt as if the citizens of Rome wanted him to lead the city, along with their Italian allies, to totally dominate the world. Caesar had managed to expand the empire beyond the average Roman's wildest dreams at the time. However, according to popular legend, it was said that Julius Caesar wept when he realized he would never achieve the same greatness as that of Alexander.

Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, is sometimes said to have felt even worse than his famous uncle. Whereas Caesar experienced status anxiety from contending with the myth and legend of Alexander, Augustus had to achieve victories and glories equivalent to both the Macedonian conqueror and his late uncle. The pressure, however, did wonders for his career as dictator of Rome, followed by his later career as the imperator. Some analysts and historians believe that Augustus focused more on becoming “worthy” of the name Caesar since most of his actions were concentrated on making improvements or changes to Rome's political and social structure. His military achievements, while seen by the public as worthy of Julius Caesar, would not have been viewed as being on the same level as Alexander's.
Napoleon Bonaparte, perhaps one of the few generals that can be considered in the same league as Alexander, often compared himself unfavorably with the Macedonian. By most accounts, Napoleon was a man who was supremely confident about his talents and skills. He possessed great faith in his ability to command the French army from victory to victory. However, he was once said to have uncharacteristically humbled himself when some of the people around him compared him to Alexander. Some stories claim that he was disappointed, for he could not even begin to conquer the world, whereas the Macedonian came so close to total world domination.

Modern history also records some leaders who aspired for the same glory enjoyed by the ancient warrior-leaders. Some accounts claim that Adolf Hitler often dreamt of leading Nazi Germany to conquer the world, much like Alexander led the Macedonians. By this time, one of the prevalent myths about Alexander was that he was intent on conquering the world, purifying it by the sword. In some ways, Hitler saw a reflection of his own mission of reclaiming Aryan supremacy. By patterning himself after history's greatest general, he was, of course exercising nothing more than self-aggrandizement because Hitler can hardly be considered a military man.

In the end, it is difficult to ascertain just how much influence the facts and the myths around Alexander the Great affect modern military commanders. Perhaps, in some ways, they still feel status anxiety when their work is compared to the Macedonians, but there is no certainty in that. The only concrete influence, really, is that any military commander that goes into an expansive campaign is going to be compared to Alexander, as a testament to the great general's legacy.

Far from perfect: the complex game of suburban life

Most people in seemingly idyllic and ideal communities really live lives of...well, quiet desperation. Beneath the surface of peaceful and calm surroundings is a harsh, brutal world. It is in such places that the elements and principles of Darwinian evolution are applied in a social setting. There's plenty of backstabbing, betrayed allegiances, deception, and manipulation. All of this is, of course, occurring under the pretenses of being “good neighbors” and “close acquaintances.” Underneath it all, some are inclined to believe, is the worst possible manifestation of social anxiety.

Social anxiety may not be the only cause of this unusual game of deception and counter-deception going on in seemingly quiet areas, but it is often cited as one of the main factors. Somehow, the competitive nature that is implanted in children finds ways to manifest itself, even in such peaceful and theoretically stress-free locales. In some cases, it is rather simple and unobtrusive, such as one housewife making a remark or two about her having a better husband or children than her neighbor. It could be safe to say the two are friends, but share a mild rivalry between them.

However, social anxiety can also lead to some actions that can be considered extreme and unsavory within the context of the communities they happen. While “Desperate Housewives” may simply be a TV show, the harsh fact is that one of the reasons for the show being a huge hit is that it rings true. Certainly, some of the story arcs and events are well-entrenched in the realm of extremity, but most suburban residents can feel the motivation behind them and empathize with characters and the often silly twists. In an interestingly large number of cases, some viewers have even mentioned that, as extreme as some actions have been, they had seriously considered doing such “desperate” deeds at one point or another.

Apart from the backstabbing, the suburban environment has sometimes led residents to develop a bit of status anxiety on the side. For one reason or another, certain residents of suburban areas (housewives seem particularly prone) become moderately obsessed with the idea of appearing as close to “ideal” as possible. This can result in some “anal-retentive” behavior and obsession with perfection.

In attempting to attain the image of “perfection” for whatever role they are most prominent in, some people develop an acute sensitivity to any perceived threat to their status. This status anxiety can also lead to some subtle hostility. Activities can range from making snide remarks about one person's hospitality and hosting skills during a party to blatant sabotage of a rival's rosebushes.



This status anxiety, combined with the social competitiveness, has created two things. First, it has made an excellent place to study the the validity of applying Darwinian evolution into a social setting. These sorts of environments serve as a near-perfect testing area to see individuals playing their social games in an attempt to secure a goal, though the goal can sometimes be “playing the game” in itself. Second, it shows just how deeply ingrained competition is in the current social environment. There is a mild horror at the realization that, even in such perfect situations and idyllic conditions, the dog-eat-dog mentality still finds a way to exercise itself.